Background information about waste disposal practices Essay Example

Background information about waste disposal practices Paper A primary objective of waste management today is to protect the public and the environment from potentially harmful effects of waste. Some waste materials are normally safe, but can become hazardous if not managed properly. For example, 1 gal (3. 75 1) of used motor oil can potentially contaminate one million gal (3,790,000 1) of drinking water . Every individual, business, or organization must make decisions and take some responsibility regarding the management of his or her waste. On a larger scale, government agencies at the local, state, and federal levels enact and enforce regulations governing waste management. These agencies also educate the public about proper waste management. In addition, local government agencies may provide disposal or recycling services, or they may hire or authorize private companies to perform those functions. Throughout history, there have been four basic methods of managing waste: dumping it, burning it, finding another use for it (reuse and recycling), and not creating the waste in the first place (waste prevention). How those four methods are utilized depends on the wastes being managed. Municipal solid waste is different from industrial, agricultural, or mining waste. Hazardous waste is a category that should be anteed separately, although it sometimes is generated with the other types. The first humans did not worry much about waste management. They simply left their garbage where it dropped. However, as permanent communities developed, people began to dispose of their waste in designated dumping areas. The use of such open dumps for garbage is still common in many parts of the world. We will write a custom essay sample on Background information about waste disposal practices specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Background information about waste disposal practices specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Background information about waste disposal practices specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Open dumps have major disadvantages, however, especially in heavily populated areas. Toxic chemicals can filter down through a dump and contaminate groundwater . The liquid that filters through a dump or landfill is called leached. Dumps may also generate methane, a flammable and explosive gas produced when organic wastes decompose under anaerobic (oxygen-poor) conditions. The landfill, also known as the sanitary landfill, was invented in England in the 1 sass. Ata landfill, the garbage is compacted and covered at the end of every day with several inches of soil . Landfill became common in the united States in the sass. By the late sass, it was the dominant method for disposing municipal solid waste in the nation. Early landfills had significant problems with leached and methane, but those have largely been resolved at facilities built since about he early 1 sass. Well-engineered landfills are lined with several feet of clay and with thick plastic sheets. Leached is collected at the bottom, drained through pipes, and processed. Methane gas is also safely piped out of many landfills. The dumping of waste does not just take place on land. Ocean dumping, in which barges carry garbage out to sea, was once used as a disposal method by some United States coastal cities and is still practiced by some nations. Sewage sludge, or waste material from sewage treatment, was dumped at sea in huge quantities by New York City as recently as 1 992, but his is now prohibited in the United States. Also called bossily, sewage sludge is not generally considered solid waste, but it is sometimes composted with organic municipal solid waste. Burning has a long history in municipal solid waste management. Some American cities began to burn their garbage in the late nineteenth century in devices called crematory. These Were not very efficient, however, and cities went back to dumping and other methods. In the 1 sass and sass, many cities built new types of more-efficient garbage burners known as incinerators. The early incinerators were rather dirty in arms of their emissions of air pollutants, and beginning in the sass they were gradually shut down. However, in the 1 9705, waste burning enjoyed another revival. These newer incinerators, many of which are still in operation, are called resource recovery or waste-to-energy plants. In addition to burning garbage, they produce heat or electricity that can be used in nearby buildings or residences, or sold to a utility. Many local governments became interested in waste-to-energy plants following the energy crisis in 1973. However, since the mid-1 sass, it became difficult to find locations to lid these facilities, mainly because of public opposition focused on air- quality issues. Another problem with incineration is that it generates ash, which must be landfill. Incinerators usually reduce the volume of garbage by 70-90%. The remainder of the incinerated waste comes out as ash that often contains high concentrations of toxic substances. Municipal solid waste will likely always be landfill or burned to some extent. In the past 25 years, however, non-disposal methods such as waste prevention and recycling have become more common. Because of public concerns and the high costs of entangling and burning (especially to build new facilities), local governments want to reduce the amount of waste that must be disposed in these ways. Municipal solid waste is a relatively small part of the overall waste generated in the United States. More than 95% of the total 4. 5 billion tons of solid waste generated in the United States each year is agricultural, mining, or industrial waste. These wastes do not receive nearly as much attention as municipal solid waste, because most people do not have direct experience with them. Also, agricultural and mining wastes, which make up 88% of the overall total f solid waste, are largely handled at the places they are generated, that is, in the fields or at remote mining sites. Mining nearly always generates substantial waste, whether the material being mined is coal , clay, sand , gravel, building stone, or metallic ore. Early mining concentrated on the richest lodes of minerals . Because modern methods of mining are more efficient, they can extract the desired minerals from veins that are less rich. However, much more waste is produced in the process. Many of the plant and animal wastes generated by agriculture remain in the fields or rangelands. These wastes can be beneficial because they return organic matter and nutrients to the soil. However, modern techniques of raising large numbers of animals in small areas generate huge volumes of animal waste, or manure. Waste in such concentrated quantities must be managed carefully, or it can contaminate groundwater or surface water. Industrial wastes that are not hazardous have traditionally been sent to landfills or incinerators. The rising cost of disposal has prompted many companies to seek alternative methods for handling these Wastes, such as Waste prevention and recycling. Often a manufacturing plant can reclaim certain east materials by feeding them back into the production process. Hazardous wastes are materials considered harmful or potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Wastes may be deemed hazardous because they are poisonous, flammable, or corrosive, or because they react with other substances in a dangerous way. Industrial operations have produced large quantities of hazardous waste for hundreds of years. Some hazardous wastes, such as mercury and dioxins, may be released as gases or vapors. Many hazardous industrial wastes are in liquid form. One of the greatest risks is that these wastes will contaminate water supplies. An estimated 60% of all hazardous industrial waste in the United States is disposed using a method called deep-well injection. With this technique, liquid wastes are injected through a well into an impervious reconfirmation that keeps the waste isolated from groundwater and surface water. Other methods of underground burial are also used to dispose hazardous industrial waste and other types of dangerous material. Pesticides used in farming may contaminate agricultural waste. Because of the enormous volumes of pesticides used in agriculture, the proper handling of unused pesticides is a daunting challenge for waste managers. Certain mining techniques also utilize toxic chemicals. Piles of mining and metal-processing waste, known as waste rock and tailings, may contain hazardous substances. Because of a reaction with the oxygen in the air, large amounts of toxic acids may form in waste rock and tailings and leach into surface waters. Public attitudes also play a pivotal role in decisions about waste management. Virtually every proposed new landfill or waste-to-energy plant is opposed by people who live near the site. Public officials and planners refer to this reaction as NIMBI, which stands for Not In My Backyard If an opposition group becomes vocal r powerful enough, a city or county council is not likely to approve a proposed waste-disposal project. The public also wields considerable influence with businesses. Recycling and waste prevention initiatives enjoy strong public support. About 19% of United States municipal solid waste was recycled or composted in 1 994, was incinerated, and 71 % was landfill. Preventing or reducing waste is typically the least expensive method for managing waste. Waste prevention may also reduce the amount of resources needed to manufacture or package a product. For example, most roll-on deodorants once came in a plastic bottle, which was inside a box. Beginning about 1 992, deodorant manufacturers redesigned the bottle so that it would not tip-over easily on store shelves, which eliminated the need for the box as packaging. This is the type of waste prevention called source reduction. It can save businesses money, while also reducing waste. Waste prevention includes many different practices that result in using fewer materials or products, or using materials that are less toxic. For example, a chain of clothing stores can ship its products to its Stores in reusable garment bags, instead of disposable lactic bags. Manufacturers of household batteries can reduce the amount of mercury in their batteries. In an office, employees can copy documents on both sides of a sheet of paper, instead of just one side. A family can use cloth instead of paper napkins. Composting grass clippings and tree leaves at home, rather than having them picked up for disposal or municipal composting, is another form of waste prevention. A resident can leave grass clippings on the lawn after mowing (this is known as grass-cycling), or can compost leaves and grass in a backyard composting bin, or use them as a mulch in the garden. When the current recycling boom began in the late sass, markets for the recyclables were not sufficiently considered. A result was that some recyclable materials were collected in large quantities but could not be sold, and some ended up going to landfills. Today, the development of recycling markets is a high priority. Close the loop is a catch-phrase in recycling education; it means that true recycling (I. E. , the recycling loop) has not taken place until the new product is purchased and used. To boost recycling markets, many local and state governments now require that their own agencies purchase and use products made from cycled materials. In a major step Fontana for recycling, President Bill Cloudiness an executive order in 1993 requiring the federal government to use more recycled products. Many managers of government recycling programs feel that manufacturers should take more responsibility for the disposal of their products and packaging rather than letting municipalities bear the brunt of the disposal costs. An innovative and controversial law in Germany requires manufacturers to set up collection and recycling programs for disused packaging of their products. The high cost of government-created recycling programs is often criticized. Supporters of recycling argue it is still less expensive than landfill or incineration, when all costs are considered. Another concern about recycling is that the recycling process itself may generate hazardous wastes that must be treated and disposed. Recycling of construction and demolition (CD) debris is one of the growth areas for recycling. Although CD debris is not normally considered a type of municipal solid waste, millions of tons of it have gone to municipal landfills over the years. If this material is separated at the construction or demolition site into separate piles of concrete, wood, and steel, it can usually e recycled. Composting is considered either a form of recycling, or a close relative. Composting occurs when organic waste-? such as yard waste, food waste, and paper-?is broken down by microbial processes. The resulting material, known as compost, can be used by landscapers and gardeners to improve the fertility of their soil. Yard waste, primarily grass clippings and tree leaves, makes up about one-fifth of the weight of municipal solid waste. Some states do not allow this waste to be disposed. These yard-waste bans have resulted in rapid growth for municipal composting programs. In these orgasm, yard waste is collected by trucks (separately from garbage and recyclables) and taken to a composting plant, where it is chopped up, heaped, and regularly turned until it becomes compost. Waste from food-processing plants and produce trimmings from grocery stores are composted in some parts of the country. Residential food waste is the next frontier for composting. The city of Halifax, in Canada, collects food waste from households and composts it in large, central facilities. Biological treatment, a technique for handling hazardous wastes, could be called a high-tech form of composting. Like composting biological treatment employs microbes to break down wastes through a series of metabolic reactions. Many substances that are toxic, carcinogenic (cancer-causing), or undesirable in the environment for other reasons can be rendered harmless through this method. Extensive research on biological treatment is in progress. Genetic engineering, a controversial branch of biology dealing with the modification of genetic codes, is closely linked with biological treatment, and could produce significant advances in this field. Waste management became a particularly expensive proposition during the 1 9905, especially for disposal. Consequently, waste managers constantly seek innovations that will improve efficiency and reduce costs. Several new ideas in land-filling involve the reclamation of useful resources from wastes. For example, instead of just burning or releasing the methane gas that is generated within solid-waste landfills, some operators collect this gas, and then use it to produce power locally or sell it as fuel. At a few landfills, managers have experimented with a bold but relatively untested concept known as landfill mining. This involves digging up an existing landfill to recover recyclable materials, and sometimes o re-bury the garbage more efficiently. Landfill mining has been criticized as costly and impractical, but some operators believe it can save money under certain circumstances. In the high-tech world of incineration, new designs and concepts are constantly being tried. One waste-to-energy technology for solid waste being introduced to the United States is called fluoride-bed incineration. About 40% of incinerators in Japan use this technology, which is designed to have lower emissions of some air pollutants than conventional incinerators. A 1 994 United States Supreme Court ruling could increase the cost of incineration significantly. The Court ruled that some ash produced by municipal solid-waste incinerators must be treated as a hazardous waste, because of high levels of toxic substances such as lead and cadmium. This means that incinerator ash now has to be tested, and part or all of the material may have to go to a hazardous waste landfill rather than a standard landfill. A much smaller type of incinerator is used at many hospitals to burn medical wastes, such as blood, surgical waste, syringes, and laboratory waste. The safety of these medical waste incinerators has become a major issue in some communities. A study by the Environmental Protection Agency released n 1 994 found that medical waste incinerators were leading sources of dioxin emissions into the air. The same study warned that dioxins, which can be formed by the burning of certain chemical compounds, pose a high risk of causing cancer and other health hazards in humans. The greatest impetus for waste prevention will likely come from the public. More and more citizens will come to understand that pesticides, excessive packaging, and the use of disposable rather than durable items have important environmental costs. Through the growth of the information society, knowledge about these and other environmental issues will increase. This should result in a continuing evolution towards more efficient and environmentally sensitive waste management. Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is a distinct practice from resource recovery which focuses on delaying the rate of consumption of natural resources. All waste materials, whether they are solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive fall within the emit of waste management. Waste management practices can differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial producers. Management of non-hazardous waste residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local superconductivitys, while management for non- hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator subject to local, national or international authorities. Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems include: In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known as Invade, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions include the [emailprotected] [3] single-line and ring-line automatic waste collection system, here the waste is automatically collected through relatively small diameter flexible pipes from waste collection points spread out up to a distance of four kilometers from the waste collections stations. In Canadian urban centers curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill. In China, Plastic paralysis or Tire paralysis is: the process of converting waste lactic/tires into industrial fuels like paralysis oil, carbon black and hydrocarbon gas. End products are used as industrial fuels for producing heat, steam or electricity. Paralysis plant is also known as: paralysis unit, plastic to fuel industry, tire to fuel industry, plastic and tire recycling unit etc. The system is used in USA California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the united Kingdom and in Israel-For example, REESE paralysis plant that has been operational at Texas USA since December 2011, and processes up to 60 tons per day. [J In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate. In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the Aerobic system, which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and running the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. Background information about waste disposal practices Essay Example Background information about waste disposal practices Paper A primary objective of waste management today is to protect the public and the environment from potentially harmful effects of waste. Some waste materials are normally safe, but can become hazardous if not managed properly. For example, 1 gal (3. 75 1) of used motor oil can potentially contaminate one million gal (3,790,000 1) of drinking water . Every individual, business, or organization must make decisions and take some responsibility regarding the management of his or her waste. On a larger scale, government agencies at the local, state, and federal levels enact and enforce regulations governing waste management. These agencies also educate the public about proper waste management. In addition, local government agencies may provide disposal or recycling services, or they may hire or authorize private companies to perform those functions. Throughout history, there have been four basic methods of managing waste: dumping it, burning it, finding another use for it (reuse and recycling), and not creating the waste in the first place (waste prevention). How those four methods are utilized depends on the wastes being managed. Municipal solid waste is different from industrial, agricultural, or mining waste. Hazardous waste is a category that should be anteed separately, although it sometimes is generated with the other types. The first humans did not worry much about waste management. They simply left their garbage where it dropped. However, as permanent communities developed, people began to dispose of their waste in designated dumping areas. The use of such open dumps for garbage is still common in many parts of the world. We will write a custom essay sample on Background information about waste disposal practices specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Background information about waste disposal practices specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Background information about waste disposal practices specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Open dumps have major disadvantages, however, especially in heavily populated areas. Toxic chemicals can filter down through a dump and contaminate groundwater . The liquid that filters through a dump or landfill is called leached. Dumps may also generate methane, a flammable and explosive gas produced when organic wastes decompose under anaerobic (oxygen-poor) conditions. The landfill, also known as the sanitary landfill, was invented in England in the 1 sass. Ata landfill, the garbage is compacted and covered at the end of every day with several inches of soil . Landfill became common in the united States in the sass. By the late sass, it was the dominant method for disposing municipal solid waste in the nation. Early landfills had significant problems with leached and methane, but those have largely been resolved at facilities built since about he early 1 sass. Well-engineered landfills are lined with several feet of clay and with thick plastic sheets. Leached is collected at the bottom, drained through pipes, and processed. Methane gas is also safely piped out of many landfills. The dumping of waste does not just take place on land. Ocean dumping, in which barges carry garbage out to sea, was once used as a disposal method by some United States coastal cities and is still practiced by some nations. Sewage sludge, or waste material from sewage treatment, was dumped at sea in huge quantities by New York City as recently as 1 992, but his is now prohibited in the United States. Also called bossily, sewage sludge is not generally considered solid waste, but it is sometimes composted with organic municipal solid waste. Burning has a long history in municipal solid waste management. Some American cities began to burn their garbage in the late nineteenth century in devices called crematory. These Were not very efficient, however, and cities went back to dumping and other methods. In the 1 sass and sass, many cities built new types of more-efficient garbage burners known as incinerators. The early incinerators were rather dirty in arms of their emissions of air pollutants, and beginning in the sass they were gradually shut down. However, in the 1 9705, waste burning enjoyed another revival. These newer incinerators, many of which are still in operation, are called resource recovery or waste-to-energy plants. In addition to burning garbage, they produce heat or electricity that can be used in nearby buildings or residences, or sold to a utility. Many local governments became interested in waste-to-energy plants following the energy crisis in 1973. However, since the mid-1 sass, it became difficult to find locations to lid these facilities, mainly because of public opposition focused on air- quality issues. Another problem with incineration is that it generates ash, which must be landfill. Incinerators usually reduce the volume of garbage by 70-90%. The remainder of the incinerated waste comes out as ash that often contains high concentrations of toxic substances. Municipal solid waste will likely always be landfill or burned to some extent. In the past 25 years, however, non-disposal methods such as waste prevention and recycling have become more common. Because of public concerns and the high costs of entangling and burning (especially to build new facilities), local governments want to reduce the amount of waste that must be disposed in these ways. Municipal solid waste is a relatively small part of the overall waste generated in the United States. More than 95% of the total 4. 5 billion tons of solid waste generated in the United States each year is agricultural, mining, or industrial waste. These wastes do not receive nearly as much attention as municipal solid waste, because most people do not have direct experience with them. Also, agricultural and mining wastes, which make up 88% of the overall total f solid waste, are largely handled at the places they are generated, that is, in the fields or at remote mining sites. Mining nearly always generates substantial waste, whether the material being mined is coal , clay, sand , gravel, building stone, or metallic ore. Early mining concentrated on the richest lodes of minerals . Because modern methods of mining are more efficient, they can extract the desired minerals from veins that are less rich. However, much more waste is produced in the process. Many of the plant and animal wastes generated by agriculture remain in the fields or rangelands. These wastes can be beneficial because they return organic matter and nutrients to the soil. However, modern techniques of raising large numbers of animals in small areas generate huge volumes of animal waste, or manure. Waste in such concentrated quantities must be managed carefully, or it can contaminate groundwater or surface water. Industrial wastes that are not hazardous have traditionally been sent to landfills or incinerators. The rising cost of disposal has prompted many companies to seek alternative methods for handling these Wastes, such as Waste prevention and recycling. Often a manufacturing plant can reclaim certain east materials by feeding them back into the production process. Hazardous wastes are materials considered harmful or potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Wastes may be deemed hazardous because they are poisonous, flammable, or corrosive, or because they react with other substances in a dangerous way. Industrial operations have produced large quantities of hazardous waste for hundreds of years. Some hazardous wastes, such as mercury and dioxins, may be released as gases or vapors. Many hazardous industrial wastes are in liquid form. One of the greatest risks is that these wastes will contaminate water supplies. An estimated 60% of all hazardous industrial waste in the United States is disposed using a method called deep-well injection. With this technique, liquid wastes are injected through a well into an impervious reconfirmation that keeps the waste isolated from groundwater and surface water. Other methods of underground burial are also used to dispose hazardous industrial waste and other types of dangerous material. Pesticides used in farming may contaminate agricultural waste. Because of the enormous volumes of pesticides used in agriculture, the proper handling of unused pesticides is a daunting challenge for waste managers. Certain mining techniques also utilize toxic chemicals. Piles of mining and metal-processing waste, known as waste rock and tailings, may contain hazardous substances. Because of a reaction with the oxygen in the air, large amounts of toxic acids may form in waste rock and tailings and leach into surface waters. Public attitudes also play a pivotal role in decisions about waste management. Virtually every proposed new landfill or waste-to-energy plant is opposed by people who live near the site. Public officials and planners refer to this reaction as NIMBI, which stands for Not In My Backyard If an opposition group becomes vocal r powerful enough, a city or county council is not likely to approve a proposed waste-disposal project. The public also wields considerable influence with businesses. Recycling and waste prevention initiatives enjoy strong public support. About 19% of United States municipal solid waste was recycled or composted in 1 994, was incinerated, and 71 % was landfill. Preventing or reducing waste is typically the least expensive method for managing waste. Waste prevention may also reduce the amount of resources needed to manufacture or package a product. For example, most roll-on deodorants once came in a plastic bottle, which was inside a box. Beginning about 1 992, deodorant manufacturers redesigned the bottle so that it would not tip-over easily on store shelves, which eliminated the need for the box as packaging. This is the type of waste prevention called source reduction. It can save businesses money, while also reducing waste. Waste prevention includes many different practices that result in using fewer materials or products, or using materials that are less toxic. For example, a chain of clothing stores can ship its products to its Stores in reusable garment bags, instead of disposable lactic bags. Manufacturers of household batteries can reduce the amount of mercury in their batteries. In an office, employees can copy documents on both sides of a sheet of paper, instead of just one side. A family can use cloth instead of paper napkins. Composting grass clippings and tree leaves at home, rather than having them picked up for disposal or municipal composting, is another form of waste prevention. A resident can leave grass clippings on the lawn after mowing (this is known as grass-cycling), or can compost leaves and grass in a backyard composting bin, or use them as a mulch in the garden. When the current recycling boom began in the late sass, markets for the recyclables were not sufficiently considered. A result was that some recyclable materials were collected in large quantities but could not be sold, and some ended up going to landfills. Today, the development of recycling markets is a high priority. Close the loop is a catch-phrase in recycling education; it means that true recycling (I. E. , the recycling loop) has not taken place until the new product is purchased and used. To boost recycling markets, many local and state governments now require that their own agencies purchase and use products made from cycled materials. In a major step Fontana for recycling, President Bill Cloudiness an executive order in 1993 requiring the federal government to use more recycled products. Many managers of government recycling programs feel that manufacturers should take more responsibility for the disposal of their products and packaging rather than letting municipalities bear the brunt of the disposal costs. An innovative and controversial law in Germany requires manufacturers to set up collection and recycling programs for disused packaging of their products. The high cost of government-created recycling programs is often criticized. Supporters of recycling argue it is still less expensive than landfill or incineration, when all costs are considered. Another concern about recycling is that the recycling process itself may generate hazardous wastes that must be treated and disposed. Recycling of construction and demolition (CD) debris is one of the growth areas for recycling. Although CD debris is not normally considered a type of municipal solid waste, millions of tons of it have gone to municipal landfills over the years. If this material is separated at the construction or demolition site into separate piles of concrete, wood, and steel, it can usually e recycled. Composting is considered either a form of recycling, or a close relative. Composting occurs when organic waste-? such as yard waste, food waste, and paper-?is broken down by microbial processes. The resulting material, known as compost, can be used by landscapers and gardeners to improve the fertility of their soil. Yard waste, primarily grass clippings and tree leaves, makes up about one-fifth of the weight of municipal solid waste. Some states do not allow this waste to be disposed. These yard-waste bans have resulted in rapid growth for municipal composting programs. In these orgasm, yard waste is collected by trucks (separately from garbage and recyclables) and taken to a composting plant, where it is chopped up, heaped, and regularly turned until it becomes compost. Waste from food-processing plants and produce trimmings from grocery stores are composted in some parts of the country. Residential food waste is the next frontier for composting. The city of Halifax, in Canada, collects food waste from households and composts it in large, central facilities. Biological treatment, a technique for handling hazardous wastes, could be called a high-tech form of composting. Like composting biological treatment employs microbes to break down wastes through a series of metabolic reactions. Many substances that are toxic, carcinogenic (cancer-causing), or undesirable in the environment for other reasons can be rendered harmless through this method. Extensive research on biological treatment is in progress. Genetic engineering, a controversial branch of biology dealing with the modification of genetic codes, is closely linked with biological treatment, and could produce significant advances in this field. Waste management became a particularly expensive proposition during the 1 9905, especially for disposal. Consequently, waste managers constantly seek innovations that will improve efficiency and reduce costs. Several new ideas in land-filling involve the reclamation of useful resources from wastes. For example, instead of just burning or releasing the methane gas that is generated within solid-waste landfills, some operators collect this gas, and then use it to produce power locally or sell it as fuel. At a few landfills, managers have experimented with a bold but relatively untested concept known as landfill mining. This involves digging up an existing landfill to recover recyclable materials, and sometimes o re-bury the garbage more efficiently. Landfill mining has been criticized as costly and impractical, but some operators believe it can save money under certain circumstances. In the high-tech world of incineration, new designs and concepts are constantly being tried. One waste-to-energy technology for solid waste being introduced to the United States is called fluoride-bed incineration. About 40% of incinerators in Japan use this technology, which is designed to have lower emissions of some air pollutants than conventional incinerators. A 1 994 United States Supreme Court ruling could increase the cost of incineration significantly. The Court ruled that some ash produced by municipal solid-waste incinerators must be treated as a hazardous waste, because of high levels of toxic substances such as lead and cadmium. This means that incinerator ash now has to be tested, and part or all of the material may have to go to a hazardous waste landfill rather than a standard landfill. A much smaller type of incinerator is used at many hospitals to burn medical wastes, such as blood, surgical waste, syringes, and laboratory waste. The safety of these medical waste incinerators has become a major issue in some communities. A study by the Environmental Protection Agency released n 1 994 found that medical waste incinerators were leading sources of dioxin emissions into the air. The same study warned that dioxins, which can be formed by the burning of certain chemical compounds, pose a high risk of causing cancer and other health hazards in humans. The greatest impetus for waste prevention will likely come from the public. More and more citizens will come to understand that pesticides, excessive packaging, and the use of disposable rather than durable items have important environmental costs. Through the growth of the information society, knowledge about these and other environmental issues will increase. This should result in a continuing evolution towards more efficient and environmentally sensitive waste management. Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is a distinct practice from resource recovery which focuses on delaying the rate of consumption of natural resources. All waste materials, whether they are solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive fall within the emit of waste management. Waste management practices can differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial producers. Management of non-hazardous waste residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local superconductivitys, while management for non- hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator subject to local, national or international authorities. Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems include: In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known as Invade, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions include the [emailprotected] [3] single-line and ring-line automatic waste collection system, here the waste is automatically collected through relatively small diameter flexible pipes from waste collection points spread out up to a distance of four kilometers from the waste collections stations. In Canadian urban centers curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill. In China, Plastic paralysis or Tire paralysis is: the process of converting waste lactic/tires into industrial fuels like paralysis oil, carbon black and hydrocarbon gas. End products are used as industrial fuels for producing heat, steam or electricity. Paralysis plant is also known as: paralysis unit, plastic to fuel industry, tire to fuel industry, plastic and tire recycling unit etc. The system is used in USA California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the united Kingdom and in Israel-For example, REESE paralysis plant that has been operational at Texas USA since December 2011, and processes up to 60 tons per day. [J In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate. In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the Aerobic system, which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and running the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost.

English Castle Essay Essays

English Castle Essay Essays English Castle Essay Essay English Castle Essay Essay Palaces are munitions made to protect resources and lives every bit good. It is besides the chief construction of defence. Walls made of big chiseled heavy rocks that are stacked to flawlessness. The palace has a stable. depot. bakeshops. kitchens. bungalows and quarters for soldiers. Normally a metropolis a situated in a palace where a metropolis is surrounded by walls and the lone entryway is a individual immense gate. This gate is where the merchandisers and enterprisers trade goods for the metropolis market. It was the Norman vanquishers who made the palace constructing an art. They built palaces chiefly as a defence outstation. They situate a palace in a high land wherein it will be surrounded by H2O or a deep ditch. It was supposed to be high because it will detain interlopers from assailing besides it will be really susceptible for bowmans to snipe down interlopers. Castle acts as supports or fastnesss that no 1 can perforate. A palace is governed by a male monarch. the highest regulation. In the English scene. palaces were built in Medieval epoch. wherein palaces were made out of rock. This is a additive representation of what has transpired back so. In the Stone age. Causewayed Camps and Stonehenge was discovered. The Bronze age produced the Hillforts of England and the Maiden Castle. which is considered to be the biggest palace. In the Iron Age and the Romans Hillforts of England was reinforced since the English were under besieging. The English people put up Hadrian’s Wall and the Roman Forts as a line of defence. After the Romans have fallen. the English people were ungratified with war and were attacked by Scotts. the Welch and the Anglo-Saxons. These encroachers were besides accompanied by the sudden onslaughts of the Vikings. By that clip Alfred the great idea of defence mechanism to do England less susceptible for onslaughts. Alfred the great made the non a formation of walls alternatively made a strategic placement of bastioned towns that was called â€Å"Burhs† . Logically. if there are many bastioned towns reenforcing each other so there will less onslaughts made because the opportunities of endurance will be little. This happened in the reign of the Anglo-Saxon which is besides known as the Dark Ages. But the root of all the esteemed palaces made were from the Medieval Period spearheaded by the Norman Invasion in which they introduced the Motte and Bailey palace which is made from rock and wood. At this clip. the Medieval Kings have devised a program to raise Windsor and Warwick Castle. Then King Edward I conquered the Wales. He established the monolithic munitions called Concentric Castles. Examples of these Concentric Castles are the Cowny. Harlech and the Caernarvon Castle. Concentric Castles were besides called Edwardian Castles. They have no basic points of concentration. Their defence is the wall rings built around them and the entryway is a individual gate that serves as span and besides served as the gate. They lower the Gatess in the forenoon and stopping points at dark. Palaces in general are chiefly for protection and besides for economic intents. There are estimated to be 72 English Palaces and here are some of them: Alnwick. Lindisfarne. Warwick. Carisbrooke. Pevensey. Tintagel. Stafford. Pendennis. Lancaster. Herstmonceux. Saint Mawes. Grimsthorpe. Calshot. Rochester. Ludlow. Kenilworth. Richmond. Carlisle. Yarmouth. Bodiam and Scotney Castle. Among those Numberss of Castle. a few stand-out such as Pontefract. Bodiam. Caister. Allington. Hever. Tower of London. Windsor. Warwick and Leeds Castle. Pontefract Castle was King Charles last fortress in the Civil War. Bodiam Castle was erected by a soldier in the clip of King Edward III named Sir John Dalyngrudge. He believed that strengthening the palace would do it difficult for interlopers to perforate. Caister Castle was built by Sir John Fastolfe. who fought in the Gallic Wars. In the Allington Castle. Sir Thomas Wyatt was born. This palace was his sanctuary for composing the prose and poetry of his verse form. Hever Castle has a beautiful garden ever been associated with Queen Anne Boleyn which is the courtesan of King Henry VIII. The Tower of London is considered to be the royal abode of the King. It besides means that it was the centre of power. Tower of London is non a individual tower but it consists of other different tower as defence constructions. It thwarted the onslaughts of the Vikings. Beheading and anguishs are besides done here to demo disenchantment the people from the strength the authorities has and besides to advance fright to their enemies. Windsor Castle is longest standing palace with its nine hundred old ages of its glorious being. The Windsor Castle is comprised of three wards viz. : Saint George’s Chapel as the lower ward. royal flats and grad province suites as the upper ward and in-between ward is an amphitheatre. The Warwick Castle follows a Motte and Bailey manner that is made of wood but since the William the vanquisher was in-charge the he changed the wooden portion of the palace into rock by working the Anglo-Saxon labour force. Last. the Leeds Castle. which lies on the River of Len and is strategically engineered between to adjacent islands. The name Leeds came from King Ethelbert IV called Ledian. Whatever the advantages of Motte and Bailey and Concetric designs. for being inexpensive and petroleum or tough and expensive. it certainly made the history of England really meaningful. Acquisitions of land here and at that place entailed that there was a decentralised regulation of power and due to it colonisers took advantage of it and waged war. The Norman vanquishers should be proud on what they have achieved. Today. palaces are merely leftovers of what has transpired back so. All of which is written in history. engraved in our memory. The adversities and agonies of those who are tortured are shouting in the air where the palace stood. Ghosts of the dead hangout these sacred topographic points. a topographic point rich with tradition and full of award and self-respect. Palaces are non merely munitions for protection but a shelter for the weak and laden. a symbol of courage and diplomatic negotiations and above all a symbol of life in its borrowed being. The English Castles are rich with memories of the executed and the times of victory. For what of it remains is what is ours to continue. Its being can neer be replaced. its value. its worth. and its beauty. Last. palaces are non built by rock. wood or clay. it is made of the people’s blood. perspiration and cryings. Peoples visit English palaces because of awe and astonishment that it brings to them. Its construction reminds them of how people have lived and it besides depicts the events that have transpired back so. Since wars are the preponderantly remembered association with palaces. rumours and narratives about the being of shades emerged. The being of shades is attributed to the executings done inside a palace and besides to the captives kept in the keep. Though there is no material grounds to demo that there are shades within these palaces. people still insists its being. The intricate designs and ornamentation around the palace adds up to the mysticism it brings to the visitants. The chief attractive force in sing palaces is the topographic point where the throne is situated since in represents royalty and laterality over a big graduated table of people. But there is besides an equal pulling portion of the palace in contrast to the throne is the keep or den. This is where captives of war are kept. In this topographic point. it is believed that captives are being tortured to decease to pull out information from their ground forces. Since. trueness is valued. these captives are executed and their shrieks fill the air like a vibrating sound of a shade. Death is considered to be the stoping of their torture. In amount. palaces are visited based on their history and to what historical events have happened at that place. Castles best explicate how the preexistent people have lived their lives and besides it demo how engineering have transcended to what it is right now. The scientific technology and planning of making a good palace is logically thought of. Every item of a palace has a rational intent. It was distinctively modified upon the demands of the people populating in it. Last. the durable palaces are the groundss of the great historical events for the English people.

Response Paper 4 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Response Paper 4 - Coursework Example Therefore, the absence of such actions would deter the continuity of the positive behavior, or lower the capacity by which the actions are conducted. Skinner argues that reinforced behavior tends to be repeated as reinforcement strengthens an individual to continue the behavior (Skinner, 1938). In my childhood years, I did not enjoy participating in physical activities in school and at home with my peers. My lifestyle that caregivers reinforced strengthened this behavior. I was brought up as an only child, and was never permitted to interact with other children. Consequently, I spent most of my time indoors, in front of the television set. This made me an introvert, and one who could not engage actively with peers. I loved loneliness, as I did not have any company to keep me socially active. Therefore, when I joined school, I preferred to be alone, instead of seeking the company of my mates as I had become conditioned to a private life. However, things changed when I joined high school. My physical education teacher kept on encouraging me to participate in physical activities. He appreciated the slightest effort that I made, and affirmed me when I failed to perform as expected. These positive reinforcers helped me change my behavior from an antisocial being to a social being. Consequent to these, as I aspire to become a physical education teacher, I must learn how to reinforce positively the behavior of regular exercise in my students. A substantial number of students do not enjoy engaging in physical activities. They prefer to sit back, and not exercise their bodies, due to a number of reasons. Some of them could be overweight, while others lack the skills to socialize with their peers, hence making them uncomfortable with exercises that require teamwork. More to these, others could lack the necessary skills involved, leading to a low

Buildng construction for fire services (Brannigan & Corbett) Final Research Paper

Buildng construction for fire services (Brannigan & Corbett) Final - Research Paper Example The changes to these codes is expected to make tall buildings safer around the world and better equipped to handle a disaster. Building codes have been in use in the US for over 100 years since the first model code was written by the National Board of Underwriters in 1905. These codes have been revised and updated based on new materials and construction methods as they became available. Building damage during natural events like hurricanes, tornadoes and earthquakes led to revisions and upgrades of the building codes. The codes are written to establish the minimum requirements but the construction industry has often treated these as the maximum requirements (Dehring, 2006, p10, 11). Two comparatively recent major building disasters have led to the coining of the term â€Å"progressive collapse† and have led to the modification of building codes to prevent these from happening. In 1968, a gas explosion in a kitchen on the 18th floor of the 22-story Ronan Towers Apartment Building in London, UK knocked out pre-cast concrete load bearing panels in a corner of the building and that loss of support caused an entire corner bay of the building to collapse. The Murrah Federal Office Building in Oklahoma City was destroyed in 1995 by a bomb in a truck in the basement of the building. The bomb explosion damaged or destroyed three columns which led to the failure of a transfer girder. This caused the columns supported by the transfer girder and the floor areas supported by those columns to collapse causing a general collapse (Nair, 2004, p 1, 2). In both cases, the structural collapse is considered disproportionate to the trigger and the engineering community and the codes have attempted to change design codes to prevent such disproportionate damage. In general, codes attempt to improve building safety using three approaches – increasing local resistance, creating redundancy or improving interconnection (Nair, 2004, p2, 3). Increasing local

Production Plan for Riordan Manufacturing Essay - 2

Production Plan for Riordan Manufacturing - Essay Example That means that the company aims at [providing the best relationship with the company and that will enhance the client customer relationship. The company believes that relationships that are long term should be sorted by maintenance of a rigorous control that is of a high quality and that should be responsive to the attitude in the execution of the business and the setting of prices that are reasonable. The company also maintains an employee team that is team oriented and innovative in working. The company maintains an innovative team by making sure that it has employees that are properly supported and well informed and the company ensures that the climate that is provided in the working area is focused on viability that is long term. The company has a future that is based on achievement and maintenance of profitability in an attempt to assure that human and financial capital is available so as to encourage growth in the company (Riordan manufacturing.com) The company is a manufacturer of plastics and it employees more than 550 people and it has a projected earnings that is equivalent to $46million. The company is owned by Riordan industries which have a total revenue base that is greater than $ 1 billion. The products that are manufactured by the company include beverage containers that are plastic, customized plastic parts and fan parts that are made of plastic. The company operates 3 entities that are based in Michigan, California and Georgia and a joint venture that is based in china. The operating entities have systems that are independent and they have the following components; The entity that is based in san Josà © is licensed for integration of windows based on ERP manufacturing, financial management and distribution of software application that are designed for processing plastics and assembling of the manufactured products. However, the given license usually does not include the

Energy Crisis In Pakistan And Its Solutions Environmental Sciences Essay

Energy Crisis In Pakistan And Its Solutions Environmental Sciences Essay An energy crisis is any great shortfall in the supply of energy resources to an economy. It usually refers to the shortage of oil and additionally to electricity or other natural resources. The crisis often has effects on the rest of the economy, with many recessions being caused by an energy crisis in some form. In particular, the production costs of electricity rise, which raises manufacturing costs. For the consumer, the price of petrol and diesel for cars and other vehicles rises, leading to reduced consumer confidence and spending, higher transportation costs and general price rising. ENERGY CRISIS IN PAKISTAN Crisis  is one word which has become part of ordinary Pakistanis vocabulary like nothing else. First  we have sugar crisis, then wheat followed by electricity and to add more fuel to the fire now we are going through the worst gas shortage in our history. In Punjab this crisis has hurt the most with every person suffering its consequences. Thousands of daily waged workers have become jobless in industrial areas like Faisalabad, in homes women folk is suffering to feed their children, passengers wait for hours as the public transport has no CNG while those having personal transport wait for hours in order to obtain much required CNG refilling. Our innocent executives like their predecessor have a bucket full of excuses in order to justify this mismanagement. For price hike and declining economy they have the common tag line of market mechanism and global slowdown to justify this phenomena. In case of electricity and gas load shedding they can find no good reason but to curse increasing demand. The reality which they never accept is the fact that this shortfall is depriving our state from billions of rupees by not availing this opportunity of earning revenue, instead of wasting time on IMF imposed RGST and much more. Some conspiracy theories have floated for quite some time blaming this shortfall as a dirty mean to maximize their benefits. Like in electricity crisis they have managed to pull out the much debated Rental Power Projects while in case of gas shortage they are earning billions from taxes imposed on petroleum products and LPG. In short this recklessness can only be justified by only one reason, which is that our plans on day to day basis rather than planning in years as done in the developed countries. Energy resources have depleted! Whatever resources are available are simply too expensive to buy or already acquired by countries which had planned and acted long time ago. Delayed efforts in the exploration sector have not been able to find sufficient amounts of energy resources. Nations of the world which have their own reserves are not supplying energy resources anymore; only the old contracts made decades ago are active. Airplanes, trains, cars, motorbikes, buses and trucks, all modes of transportation are coming to a standstill. Many industries have closed due to insufficient power supply. Price of oil has gone above the ceiling. At domestic level, alternate methods like solar, biogas and other methods are being tried for mere survival.   The above is a likely scenario of Pakistan and around the globe after 25 years. A pessimistic view, but realistic enough to think about and plan for the future. But are we doing anything about it? Lets have a look at the current energy situation of Pakistan and the world.   Pakistans economy is performing at a very high note with GDP growing at an exceptional rate, touching 8.35% in 2004-05.In its history of 58 years, there has been only a few golden years where the economy grew above 7%. This year official expectations are that GDP growth rate will be around 6.5 7.0%. For the coming years, the government is targeting GDP growth rate above 6%. With economy growing at such a pace, the energy requirements are likely to increase with a similar rate. For 2004-05, Pakistans energy consumption touched 55.5 MTOE (Million Tons of Oil Equivalent).   The energy consumption is expected to grow at double digit if the overall economy sustains the targeted GDP growth rate of 6% by the government. Pakistans energy requirements are expected to double in the next few years, and our energy requirements by 2015 is likely to cross 120MTOE. By 2030, the nations requirement will be 7 times the current requirement reaching 361MTOE. Pakistans energy requirements are fulfilled with more than 80% of energy resources through imports.   On the other hand, international oil prices have not only broken all records but are touching new height every day directly or indirectly affecting the black gold industry. Moreover, speculators all around the world expect oil prices to touch $100 per barrel in medium term. With concerns over Irans nuclear program, terrorist issues in Nigeria and high economic growth in China India and their ever rising energy requirements, oil prices dont see any another way but to shoot upwards.   BACKGROUND OF CRISIS FEARED IN PAKISTAN Power crisis feared by 2007 The country may plunge into energy crisis by the year 2007 due to rising electricity demand which enters into double digit figure following increasing sale of electrical and electronic appliances on lease finance, it is reliably learnt Thursday. The country may face energy crisis by the year 2007 following healthy growth of 13 per cent in electricity demand during the last quarter, which will erode surplus production in absence of commissioning of any new power generation project during this financial year, informed sources told The Nation. As per Pakistan Economic Survey 2003-04, electricity consumption has increased by 8.6 per cent during first three-quarter of last fiscal year. However, a top level WAPDA official maintained that electricity demand surged up to 13 per cent during last quarter. The survey said household sector has been the largest consumer of electricity accounting for 44.2 per cent of total electricity consumption followed by industries 31.1 per cent, agriculture 14.3 per cent, other government sector 7.4 per cent, commercial 5.5 per cent and street light 0.7 per cent. Keeping in view the past trend and the future development, WAPDA has also revised its load forecast to eight per cent per annum as against previous estimates of five per cent on average. Even the revised load forecast has also failed all assessments due to which Authority has left no other option but to start load management this year, which may convert into scheduled load shedding over a period of two year, sources maintained. The country needs a quantum jump in electricity generation in medium-term scenario to revert the possibilities of load shedding in future due to shrinking gap between demand and supply of electricity at peak hours. According to an official report, the gap between firm supply and peak hours demand has already been shrunk to three digit (440 MW) during this fiscal and will slip into negative columns next year (-441 MW) and further intensify to (-1,457 MW) during the financial year 2006-07. The report maintained that the difference between firm supply and peak demand is estimated at 5,529 MW by the year 2009-10 when firm electricity supply will stand at 15,055 MW against peak demand of 20,584 MW. Chairman WAPDA Tariq Hamid at a Press conference Chairman WAPDA Tariq Hamid at a Press conference early this year warned about the possible energy crisis and stressed the need for quantum jump in power generation. The experts say it could only be possible through a mega project of hydropower generation; otherwise the gap between firm supply and peak demand will remain on the rise. QUEST FOR ENERGY SECURITY Energy has become an important prerequisite for the economic development of a country. On one hand it is used for the industrial and agricultural purposes and on the other hand it is required for domestic use of the citizens. Natural gas is the fastest growing primary energy source. Globally Energy Crisis in Pakistan 5 consumption of natural gas is projected to increase by nearly 70 percent between 2002 and 2025, with the most vigorous growth in demand expected among the emerging economies. Consumption of natural gas worldwide increases in the forecast by an average of 2.3 percent annually from 2002 to 2025, compared with projected annual growth rates of 1.9 percent for oil consumption and 2.0 percent for coal consumption. The electric power sector accounts for almost one-half of the total incremental growth in worldwide natural gas demand over the forecast period. SOUTH ASIA IS IMPORTANT TO WORLD ENERGY MARKETS South Asia is important to world energy markets because it contains 1.3 billion people and is experiencing rapid energy demand growth. After India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are the next largest South Asian countries in these categories. Economic and population growth in South Asia have resulted in rapid increases in energy consumption in recent years. The major energy issues facing South Asian nations today are keeping up with rapidly rising energy demand. Agency for energy consumption has projected that by the year 2010 South Asian countries shall be consuming more than double the current levels of primary commercial energy. THIRD LARGEST COUNTRY IN USE OF NATURAL GAS Pakistans largest energy source is natural gas, with demand and imports growing rapidly. Currently, natural gas supplies 49 percent of Pakistans energy needs. According to the Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ), as of January 1, 2005, Pakistan had 26.83 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves. Pakistan is looking to increase its gas production to support increasing consumption through Pipelines from Iran and Turkmenistan. Currently, Pakistan ranks third in the world for use of natural gas as a motor fuel, behind Brazil and Argentina. In addition, Pakistan hopes to make gas the fuel of choice for future electric power generation projects. Pakistan ambitiously seeks to increase oil production through new alliances with foreign companies. Pakistans net oil imports are projected to rise substantially in coming years as demand growth outpaces increases in production. WASTE TO ENERGY IS NEEDED IN PAKISTAN Electricity generation from Wastes Recent increase in pollution due to the human and industrial waste has forced the man to devise ways to use it as an energy source. Energy from the waste is a recycling process known as  incineration. The process of incineration is the combustion of waste material to generate electricity or heat at large. This trend of generating electricity is more popular in underdeveloped countries because they are facing the severe pollution hazards. Incineration reduces the waste and proves helpful in generating energy. Recent studies have shown that a pack of solid waste contains approximately 548 watts of energy which is equal to one barrel oil. As the world is getting polluted day by day and important energy resources are scarce waste energy can be a useful technique in many ways. First of all the solid waste from the industry and household can be controlled. Secondly it can be used to generate electricity. Waste from energy process not only helps reduce waste but also is a cheap and affordable way of generate energy. Many developed countries in the world are selling their useful solid industrial waste to the third world countries. Energy from waste is utilized to charge electric batteries as well. The heaps of garbage in the world are spreading diseases. All the populated countries in the world are thinking of transferring their garbage waste to barren lands in the world by paying a little fee. It may help those countries but can be fatal for the people living near those lands. Therefore the ultimate solution is to utilize this garbage to generate energy. Many forms of fuel can be generated through the recycle of waste material which includes biofuel, ethanol from wasted water, hydrogen from garbage and electricity. The various forms of waste can be utilized to overcome the energy crises as well. This can also prove to be a way of earning money. Waste energy power plant can provide electricity to many power projects, and one can actually sell electricity to hospitals, fountain homes and small enterprises. Energy waste power plants are also environment friendly.   The use of sanitary landfill techniques has immensely dropped form 8000 to 1,767 in United States alone in the recent years. USA also produces 2500MW energy each year with the help of waste energy only. Many other countries in the world are making use of the waste energy. Recently Sweden, Japan and India has implanted energy waste power plants at large. Underdeveloped countries like Pakistan have also started an energy waste power project with the cooperation of Apex civic authority. This power project has been started with a view to counter the severe energy crises in coming years. The increasing trend of urbanization and a change in the living style has led to the piles of waste in large cities. as mentioned earlier the waste to energy power plants can also create jobs for many. This energy can also be exported to poor countries. Waste energy can help us fight the extreme conditions of global warming due to industrial waste. Biggest benefit that this waste energy power plant gives is that we have a way to use alternative fuels to run cars and vehicles also. We can lower our dependence on basic fuel such as oil and gas. The rising prices and scarcity of oil and gas has diverted the attention of the world towards the use of waste energy projects. Rawalpindi to have solid waste converter technology RAWALPINDI, Jan 8: A private company was on Saturday given the task to generate fuel from garbage after buying it daily from the city government, with the hopes that Rawalpindi will have a cleaner look. The Waste Management of Pakistan (WMP) was declared successful bidder to install the first solid waste converter technology in Rawalpindi, generating refuse-derived fuel (RDF) from municipal waste such as plastics and biodegradable items. A high-powered committee, chaired by Commissioner Rawalpindi Division Zahid Saeed, and comprising DCO Rawalpindi Imdadullah Bosal, representatives of Planning and Development (PD), Public Health Engineering (PHE) Department, and Urban Unit, Punjab (UUP) announced the WMP as successful company for installing RDF plant. Two companies- Maple Leaf Ltd and WMP- had submitted proposals before the committee. Rawalpindis district administration will sell garbage to the company at Rs50 per ton. The total generation of waste in Rawalpindi city is around 800 tons daily, which means the district administration would earn Rs 40,000 a day once the company starts its operation. Mohammad Usman, a consultant of UUP, told Dawn that the cost of RDF plant was Rs80 million and it can separate combustible wastes from non-combustible ones. Importantly it can convert the entire garbage in the city into energy on daily basis with fertilizers as byproduct. Officials said the RDF plant would help reduce random disposal of garbage in the city besides helping the municipal authorities in timely lifting the trash from streets. It would be a major source of revenue for the local government on daily basis. The more the district government lifts garbage, the more would be its value. The company would daily pay money to the municipal agencies at transfer stations, Usman said. He said the garbage could be converted into gas, coal, fertilizer, fuel and electricity on the pattern of plants installed in Iran and other European countries. The idea to install the RDF plant in Rawalpindi came after Chief Minister Shahbaz Sharif visited Iranian city Mashad previous year where waste was converted into energy. The RDF is not only a source of energy and revenue but also helps maintain cleanliness in the city. The municipal authorities would now try to lift maximum quantity of garbage and the streets will remain clean round the clock, an official said. WIND ENERGY PROJECT A Project funded by Ministry of Science Technology Wind Energy is clean renewable source of energy and is also the worlds fastest growing energy resource. Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) with the financial collaboration of Ministry of Science Technology (MoST), has completed its project entitled Wind Power Potential Survey of Coastal Areas of Pakistan (Phase-I) in June 2005. Phase-II consisting of Wind Mapping of Northern Areas of Pakistan is own going since July 2005.The demand for energy has increased in tremendous proportions in the last few decades in Pakistan; the same is expected to increase further in the coming years. The primary sources of energy available in Pakistan are oil, natural gas, hydro and nuclear Power. At present oil accounts for approximately 45% of total commercial energy supply. The share of natural gas is 34% while that of hydel power remains roughly at 15%. The increase in cost of fossil fuel and the various environmental problems of large scale power generation have lead to increased appreciation of the potential of electricity generation from non-conventional sources. This has provided the planners and economists to find out other low cost energy resources. Wind and Solar energies are the possible clean and low cost renewable resources available in the country. The potential, for the use of alternative technologies, has never been fully explored in Pakistan. Wind power provides opportunity to reduce dependence on imported fossil fuel and at the same time expands the power supply capacity to remote locations where grid expansion is not practical. Recently conducted survey of Wind Power Potential along coastal areas of the country by Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD), indicates that a potential exists for harvesting wind energy using currently available technologies, especially along Sindh coast. Gharo, one of the sites in Sindh where the wind data have been recorded and studied by PMD, has been selected for using the measured wind data the annual gross energy production by an 18 MW wind farm consisting of thirty 600 kW turbines will be 45 million kWh. Taking into account the wind turbine availability, net losses and wake effects in the wind farm the net annual energy production is estimated to 31 million kWh per year corresponding to a capacity factor of 28%. The total investment will be Rs: 850 million and pay back period will be 7-8 years. The capital cost of wind power projects ranges Rs 4 to 5 crore per MW. This gives a levelised cost of wind energy generation in the range of Rs: 2.50 to 3.00 per kWh, taking into consideration the fiscal benefits extended by the government. Wind Power Production There are two terms to describe basic electricity production. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Efficiency, 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Capacity factor. Efficiency  refers to how much useful energy (electricity, in this case) we can get from an energy source. A 100 percent energy efficient machine would change all the energy put into it into useful energy. It would not waste any energy. There is no such thing as a 100 percent energy efficient machine. Some energy is always lost or wasted when one form of energy is converted to another. The lost energy is usually in the form of heat, which dissipates into the air and cannot be used again economically. How efficient are wind machines? Wind machines are just as efficient as most other plants, such as coal plants. Wind machines convert 30-40 percent of the winds kinetic energy into electricity. A coal-fired power plant converts about 30-35 percent of the chemical energy in coal into usable electricity. Capacity  refers to the capability of a power plant to produce electricity. A power plant with a 100 percent capacity rating would run all day, every day at full power. There would be no down time for repairs or refueling, an impossible goal for any plant. Coal plants typically have a 75 percent capacity rating since they can run day or night, during any season of the year. Wind power plants are different from power plants that burn fuel. Wind plants depend on the availability of wind, as well as the speed of the wind. Therefore, wind machines cannot operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. A wind turbine at a typical wind farm operates 65-80 percent of the time, but usually at less than full capacity, because the wind speed is not at optimum levels. Therefore, its capacity factor is 30-35 percent. Economics also plays a large part in the capacity of wind machines. Winds machines can be built that have much higher capacity factors, but it is not economical to do so. The decision is based on electricity output per dollar of investment. Capacity Factor, The annual energy output from a wind turbine is to look at the capacity factor for the turbine in its particular location. By capacity factor we mean its actual annual energy output divided by the theoretical maximum output, if the machine were running at its rated (maximum) power during all of the 8766 hours of the year. Example: If a 600 kW turbine produces 1.5 million kWh in a year its capacity factor is = 1500000: (365.25 * 24 * 600) = 1500000: 5259600 = 0.285 = 28.5 per cent. Capacity factors may theoretically vary from 0 to 100 per cent, but in practice they will usually range from 20 to 70 per cent, and mostly be around 25-30 percent. Pakistans first Wind Power Plant Pakistan has a considerable potential of wind energy in the coastal belt of Sindh, Balochistan and as well as in the desert areas of Punjab and Sindh. This renewable source of energy has however, not so far been utilized significantly. So far, large wind turbines for power generation have not been installed in Pakistan. However, about 30 wind mills for pumping water have been installed for experimental purposes in different parts of Sindh and Balochistan. In addition to the development activities in wind energy field for on grid electricity production, the wind energy is also being used for the electrification of remote off grid villages in the southern coastal areas of Pakistan. So far more than 18 villages have been electrified using micro wind turbines. Indigenous development of micro wind turbines has also commenced in Pakistan. Pakistans first ever Wind Power Plant of commercial scale was inaugurated by Prime Minister Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani on 19th April 2009 at Jhimpir, District Thatta, Sindh. PEACEFUL USES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear technology for peaceful purpose is traditionally divided into five parts: Mining and processing of nuclear raw materials Mining and processing of nuclear raw materials, the production of enriched uranium, the fabrication of nuclear fuel elements, the design construction and operation of nuclear reactors and fuel reprocessing. Use in agriculture, medicine, industry, biology and hydrology Apart from the use of nuclear energy to produce electricity from power reactors, it has also been used extensively in agriculture, medicine, industry, biology and hydrology. Radiation is finding widespread use, like to improve the present varieties of fruit, vegetables and crops. The radiations given out by atomic reactors are sometimes used for the treatment of diseases like cancer. These radiations are also used to kill dangerous germs and insects in foods and cultivated fields. For the good of society The peaceful application of nuclear energy is one of several factors contributing to the process usually described as automation, more precisely perhaps: the process of rationalization, or the fusion of science and production in industry. Scientists have started using it for the good of society. Nuclear energy can be used for destruction as well as for construction Nuclear energy can be used for destruction as well as for construction. The world needs nuclear power and will need it more in the years to come. We can see the nuclear applications in industry, nuclear radiations and radioactive materials are providing more accurate control in the production of better and cheaper things. Produce electricity on a very large scale Another thing where Pakistan is lacking behind is the electricity. Nuclear energy can help is the supply of cheap electricity. Small amounts of radioactive materials are used in these plants to produce electricity on a very large scale. It can help in easy generation and regeneration of water to produce electricity. The best use of the nuclear energy is in the field of medical sciences, the diseases of the thyroid have been classified with the use of radio iodine which the gland absorbs far more easily. Other countries are also making efforts to produce electricity at cheap rates from atomic power plants. COAL TO GET ENERGY Coal is the cheapest and the most common fuel used directly or indirectly to produce electricity and heat in the world today. Global coal consumption was about 6.7 billion tons in 2006 and is expected to increase 48% to 9.98 billion tons by 2030, according to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA). China produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006. India produced about 447.3 million tons and Pakistan mined only about 8 million tons in 2006. 68.7% of Chinas electricity comes from coal. The United States consumes about 14% of the world total, using 90% of it for generation of electricity. The U.S. coal-fired plants have over 300 GW of capacity. Thar desert region in Pakistan is endowed with one of the largest coal reserves in the world. Discovered in early 1990s, the Thar coal has not yet been developed to produce usable energy. With the devastating increases in imported oil bill and the growing shortages of gas and electricity  in the country, the coal development is finally beginning to get the attention it deserves. Coal contributes about 20% of the worldwide greenhouse gas emissions but it is the cheapest fuel available, according to  Pew Center  on Global Climate Change. It can provide usable energy at a cost of between $1 and $2 per MMBtu compared to $6 to $12 per MMBtu for oil and natural gas, and coal prices are relatively stable. Coal is inherently higher-polluting and more carbon-intensive than other energy alternatives. However, coal is so inexpensive that one can spend quite a bit on pollution control and still maintain coals competitive position. It does seem that Pakistan is finally getting serious about utilizing its vast coal resources to produce electricity and gas. Talking recently with GeoTVs Hamid Mir, Pepco Managing Director Tahir Basharat Cheema shared the following list of coal projects being launched: 1. The Sind Government has awarded a 1200 MW project to extract Thar coal and produce electricity to Engro Power. 2. A similar 1200 MW project is being undertaken by Pepco in Thar. The Pepco project also includes a 700 Km transmission line to connect Thar plants with the national grid. 3. An experimental project for underground coal gasification is being built by Pakistani nuclear scientist Dr. Mubarakmand to tap underground coal to produce 50 MW. 4. Another experimental 50 MW project using pressure coal gasification is planned by Pepco. Thar Coal Power Project Pakistan, Gasifications and Deposits Today Pakistan is facing severe shortage of energy and electricity.  Pakistan energy crisis and its solution  is much debated issue in Pakistan and coal is important part of that debate. Pakistan is not using coal for the energy production and only 1% of energy is obtained from coal. Overall theglobal share of coal in power generation is 38%, the share of coal in energy production of China is 72% while 56% for India and more than 59% for US. Coal is found in all four provinces of Pakistan and especially Sindh has huge reserves of coal located in Lakhra, Sondra, Thar and Badin. The Thar coal deposits alone estimated at 185 billion tones.  Thar coal deposits were discovered in 1992 and it is irony that even after 18 years Pakistan fails to use this great source of energy production. Bureaucratic red tapism and centre-province tussles are main  reasons of failure of Thar coal   Pakistan project. The only viable project so far remains the coal-based 450 MW power plant in Lakhra. Lakhra coal Development Company has 44 mines fully developed. Recently  Dr. Mubarakmand who is appointed the member of Planning Commission of Pakistan  launched the Underground  Coal Gasification  UCG project for the conversion of underground coal into gas without bringing it above ground. Coal gas will be used to generate electricity which is badly needed in country. But  Thar coal deposits  will take another three to four years before they start generating electricity. With initial projects Pakistan can produce over 10,000 MW of electricity for 30 years and this capacity can be enhanced up to the 50,000 MW in future. Critics of  Thar coal project  says that the quality of coal is not good and due to this inferior quality of Thar coal it is not possible to generate electricity. Their other objection is that soil of those areas is also not suitable and can cause many technical problems. Thar coal project is of great importance for Pakistan. The electricity produced from the Thar coal project will cause only rupees 4 per unit and it will drastically improve the situation of electricity in country. Although due to climate change now world is against the coal-based power generation but major world powers are using coal as major source of energy generation. Pakistan can still opt for coal-fired power plants because it is not a big polluter and its contributions to gas emissions are hardly one per cent.  Coal reserves in Pakistan  are huge and  coal gasification in Pakistan  in new phenomenon which can help Pakistan to come out of this energy crisis. HYDRO POWER The most frequent way using in Pakistan is the hydro power, as electricity is one of the major problem now a day for Pakistan, because most of the business and other factory work or local work is done with the help of electricity. So its a major source of energy for the Pakistan and hydro power is one of the important and frequently used method used by Pakistan for the production of the electricity. Hydro power is generated by using electricity generators to extract energy from moving water. Historically people used the power of rivers for agriculture and wheat grinding. Today, rivers and streams are re-directed through hydro generators to produce energy, although there arepros and cons  as far as local ecosystems are concerned. The articles on this page explore the use of water to generate electricity. Solutions Short term solution Solution of current losses in the system is 24% The methodology that will provide immediate relief is the conservation and judicious use of whatever little energy is being produced in the country. The current losses in the system are 24% of the total power generated. These include losses incurred during transmission and distribution as well as due to theft. Wasteful consumption such as businesses remaining open till late at night and unnecessarily brightly lit also contribute to losses. By reducing these to 10 % we can save up to 300 MW of energy. The government should enforce shutting down businesses and forbidding excessive and unnecessary lighting during late hours. Zoning should be enforced in cities. Power switched off at scheduled hours in market zone Market zones can have their power switched off (load sh

Lewis and Lewis, P.C. :: Accounting Firms Business Analysis Essays

Lewis and Lewis, P.C.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lewis & Lewis, P.C. is a small, Jackson-based accounting firm that employs thirty-five people and was founded by Phil Willis in 1968. It exhibits many interesting aspects of organizational behavior, which we will examine below from several perspectives. After examining the company's current policies and practices, we will evaluate its status in the transition from the "old" to the "new" model of organization, and recommend some changes that may improve the way Lewis & Lewis operates. From a Strategic Perspective Physical Description   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lewis & Lewis, P.C. is located in a quiet suburb of Jackson, Michigan. It is a forty-five minute drive from Lansing. The two-storied building is built on a slightly elevated hill with spacious parking lots in the back and to one side. The outer walls are of a pleasant beige brick which is in keeping with the calm atmosphere of the community and of the landscape. Right in front of the building there are columns and the large main entrance is toward the rear off the parking lot.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The appearance of the building is well harmonized with the surroundings. However, it gives guests the impression of dignity and openness. Directly inside the main entrance to Lewis & Lewis is a small but welcoming lobby, with a natural stone floor, stylish but difficult to walk on in heels. There is a narrow open closet for guests to hang their coats, and several chairs arranged around a table on which are placed the company newsletter and other publications. The receptionist's desk is facing the entrance door, and behind it sits a friendly young woman. The partners' offices are found against the two farthest external walls, noticeably removed from the rest of office. The other external walls are lined with the offices of the professionals, with large windows overlooking the pleasant exterior. The remainder of the office space is segmented with partitioning walls, forming a sort of cubicle labyrinth. In the center of this maze is a small kitchen where employees gather and converse informally. Adjacent to the kitchen is a small work area with copy machines and office supplies. In a corner of this floor is a set of uninviting sta irs leading to the ground level, where the conference room is located. The conference room itself is spacious and handsomely decorated, with a large table and comfortable chairs, a video center with television and VCR. The seating is limited to fourteen people. Task and Job Description   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tasks are distributed on the basis of specialization: auditing, tax, government and consulting. Very few tasks are performed by routine; each day may include new procedures for each employee.

Banana Paper Essay

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In a study, â€Å"Papers and Boards from Banana Stem Waste† in which they used banana stem waste in producing paper and board because banana is a very good source of cellulose. Banana stem waste, thrown away by farmers after harvesting of fruits, was procured as raw material. It was chopped by 3-4† size usually at a rate of about 100 kg material per day. The material was soaked in 1-2% NaOH for appropriate period. The alkali loosens the ligno-cellulosic bonds, thereby softening the material. Then it was washed with water. The washed material was then subjected to beating in a Hollander beater, a machine developed by the Dutch in 1680 to produce paper pulp from cellulose containing plant fibers. A period of three to four hours of beating was required for getting a good quality of pulp. It was observed that depending upon the quality of boards to be produced, appropriate amount of fillers, loading material or chemicals were used during wet beating. For production of hard b oards, suitable quantity of resins like urea formaldehyde and phenol formaldehyde are added in the beater itself while maintaining pH. The wet boards are then allowed to dry under direct sun on bamboo frames specially made for this purpose. Handmade paper from rice straw was a product developed by the Forest Products Research and Development Institute (FPRDI), a line agency of the DOST. In 1986, the technology was fully developed and the product was commercialized locally. The major material input used for the production of handmade paper was rice straw, an agricultural waste which was available in abundance locally. The other inputs which were also available in the domestic market were sodium hydroxide, sodium or calcium hypochlorite and paper additives such as rosin size, starch and alum (aluminum sulfate or tawas). Rosin size was used to prevent liquid penetration and make paper smooth, alum to enhance cohesion of the fibers and starch to bind fibers together. The pulping process involves the boiling of rice stalks in two percent sodium hydroxide solution, with liquor to material ratio of 10:1, for about two hours until the stalks become soft. The stalks are drained right after boiling and transferred into a screen-bottom box. Then, the stalks are thoroughly washed with water at least three times and pounded  with a wooden mallet. After pounding, the pulp is screened by under high water pressure using a double-decked screen box. Bleaching of the pulp may either be a single or multi-stage procedure depending on the desired colour of the paper. After every bleaching, the pulp is thoroughly washed with water. Paper additives such as rosin size, starch and alum are added to the pulp and the mixed substance is stirred continuously. Then, the mixture is laid on a dry and flat surface. Finally, the mixture is pressed down with a rolling pin or pressed to form the sheet. However, in this study their major ingredient in making the paper was rice straw while our major components were banana fibers and stalks. The aim of the experiment, â€Å"Use of banana tree residues as pulp for paper and combustible,† by Rosal, A., Rodriguez A. Gonzales, Z. and Jimenez, C. (Accepted 23 March 2012) was to evaluate the optimal use of banana tree residues, by two ways: first by subjecting them to pulping process with soda-anthraquinone as pulping liquor, studying the influence of operating variables on the properties of the pulps and the corresponding paper sheets obtained from them; the second way is to use them as fuel, determining the heating values, flame temperature and dew point temperature of the combustion gases, comparing their values with those found for other lignocellulosic materials. The pulp was obtained by using a 15-L batch cylindrical reactor that was heated by means of electrical wires and was linked through a rotary axle (to ensure proper agitation) to a control unit including a motor actuating the reactor and the required instruments for measurement and control of pressure and temperature. The banana tree residues were pulped in the reactor under certain conditions of soda concentration (7.5 to 12% w/w), anthraquinone concentration (1% w/w), temperature (160 to 180 °C), time (40 to 60 min) and liquid/solid ratio (8:1 w/w). Next, the cooked material was fiberized in a wet disintegrator at 1200 rpm for 30 min and the screenings were separated by sieving through a screen of 1 mm mesh size. Paper sheets were prepared on an ENJO-F-39.71 sheet machine according to the TAPPI 220 standard method. They concluded that The pulping of banana tree residue with soda anthraquinone require a low cooking conditions (160 °C, 40 min and 7.5%  soda), providing a pulp with suitable properties (39.23% pulp yield, 28.59 Kappa number, 48.25% brightness, 1149 ml/g viscosity, 48.0 Nm/g tensile index, 3.80 kN/g burst index and 4.83 mNm 2/g tear index). From an energetic study of the banana tree residue, it was deduced that banana tree residue have a heating values of 17751 kJ/kg, a flame temperature of 1300 to 2400 °C and dew point temperature of 4 to 54 °C, for different values of excess air (10 to 50%) used in combustion. These values are similar to other non-wood lignocellulosic materials. The price of the energy (kJ) obtained by combustion of these residues was less than coal and much lower than those of fluid fossil fuels. Another experiment was made by Jesus Rubalcaba, Satoki Okamoto and Miguel Lozano about Banana Paper. In their experiment, their major ingredient or the material that was important was the banana leaf. They cut the banana leaves into smaller pieces and blended it. Mix that blended pieces by five cups of water, dip the frame in the pulp and spread the pulp with hands. They take the frame outdoors ang let it dry for one day. It was concluded that the banana paper held its shape without crumbling apart. It was so unappealing and the quality wasn’t great. This study helps and guides us not to use banana leaves in making the banana paper wherein the results was not good enough. Base on their observations, it was strong enough to hold its shape but it was lumpy and brownish which makes the product not very appealing to the eyes. Thus, many would not be interested in buying, using and making it. The banana leaves weren’t strong enough compared to the banana stalks and fibers. According to a book written by Irmengarde Eberle, a conveyor belt feeds the needed logs from the wood yard into the mill. There they are put into a debarker- a large, slowly –turning iron drum. Strong streams of water are poured in from the vents in the sides. The debarked logs then roll out of the drum and move along on a conveyor. Now according to what kind of paper or paper board is to be made, the wood is either chipped or ground. For most papers and especially for the better kinds, it is chipped. For coarser grades, such as newsprint, it is ground. The logs that are to be chipped are moved along to a special room. There they are passed to a machine equipped with strong, sharp blades. These cut he wood into small pieces. Next the chips are sent over screens, which sift out bits of the remaining bark. The cleaned chips are carried to great storage tanks. Mill workers take chips from the storage tanks selecting the particular kinds required to fill each other. The selected chips are carried by a conveyor belt to a machine called a digester. Here, the mixture of water and chemicals including particularly sodium hydroxide, which is really lye, or caustic soda, awaits the chips. When the wood has been fed into the digester, it is closed. Immediately it is very hot steam, under great pressure, is let in. This steam â€Å"cooks† the chips, together with the water and chemicals, for several hours. How long this takes depends again on the kind of paper the wood is being prepared for, and the variety of the tree from which it comes . From the cooker, the wet, fibrous mass passes to the bleaching room, where it goes through a series of treatments in several successive tanks. In the course of this, the pulp becomes a light tan and still more of the remaining lye is washed out, along with other chemicals. Finally, the pulp becomes snowy white and has a kind of granular fluffiness. It may be taken to a storage tank again. When the mill is ready to make the pulp into paper it will draw out the wet material and eliminate the water. When the pulp passes into a large broad tank of water, where sizing such as starch or clay is added to give the paper the desired finish. If coloured paper is to be made, the dye is added at this time, too. The pulp passes to a machine, where huge wheel with dull blades beats the fluffy, wet, fibrous material. Finally, the mass passes on to a part of the machinery called the Jordan, where the fibers are rubbed and cut to the desired length. Now comes with the steps by which the pulp becomes fine paper. Fresh water is added to the pulp and it is moved on to the Fourdrinier, a kind of machine. In this machine the wet pulp is run onto a belt of very fine screen. The screen is in constant motion. Shaking forward and sidewise, it makes the small fibers mesh. All the while, water is again drained off, and the fibers tend to lie in the directions in which the screen belt and water move. A dandy roll or cylinder, next rolls over the fibers and presses them. By the time the very thin layer of fibers passes out from under the dandy roll, more moisture has been lost. The pulp now has actually become paper, but it is still thick and loosely mesh, it is still wet. The large, endless sheet of unfinished paper is then pressed over rollers smoothly and tightly covered with felt, which press out most of the moisture. Next it is passed over heated drums to dry it still more, and to a machine called a calendar, which presses it again. The sheets are run through the final drying and pressing rollers, and are then ready for cutting.